Subhash Chandra Bose Essay Example for Free

Subhash Chandra Bose Essay Subhash Chandra Bose was born on January 23, 1897 at Cuttack, in Orissa. He was the sixth son of Janakinath and Prabhavati Bose. Subhash was an excellent student and after school joined the Presidency College, Calcutta, where he studied philosophy, a subject he was interest in. As a young boy Subhash felt neglected among his 8 siblings. At his English school he suffered under the discrimination faced by Indians which made him even sadder. He wanted to work for the poor but his father, had other ideas. He sent Subhash to England to appear for the Indian Civil Service. In July 1920, barely eight months later Subhash Chandra Bose appeared in the Civil Service Examination and passed it with distinction. But he didnt want to be a member of the bureaucracy and resigned from the service and returned to India. Back home, he participated in the freedom movement along with Deshbandhu C. R. Das. He was thrown into jail but that only made him more determined. Subhash joined the congress and rose to its Presidentship in 1938 a post he held for 2 years. In 1939, when the Second World War started Gandhiji and other leaders were against doing anything anti-Britain. But Subhash thought differently. He knew, for instance, that the fall of the Roman Empire had led to the freedom of its colonies. He decided to seek foreign help for his cause of freeing India. He was arrested and kept in his house under detention. On January 17, 1941, while everyone was asleep, Bose slipped out of his house into a waiting car. Disguised as a Muslim religious teacher, Bose managed to reach Peshawar two days later. Bose went to Italy, Germany and even Russia to seek help but without much use. Subash decided to organize Indians on his own. He landed in Singapore and grouped Indians there into the Indian National Army or the Azad Hind Fauj and declared himself the temporary leader of the free Indian government. Japan, Germany and Italy recognizied Subhashs government and the whole of India rejoiced. The INA marched to Andaman and Nicobar islands, liberating and renaming them as Shaheed and Swaraj islands. On March 18, 1944, it crossed the Burmese border and reached Manipur where free Indias banner was raised with the shouts of Jai Hind and Netaji Zindabad. But heavy rain prevented any further movement and the units had to fall back. Even then Netaji was determined. On August 17, 1945, he issued a Special Order to the INA which said that Delhi is still our goal. He then wanted to go to Russia to seek Soviet help to fight the British. But the ill-fated plane in which he was flying, crashed in Taipei on August 18, 1945, resulting in his death. Some people believe that Subhash Chandra Bose didnt die, that he faked his own crash to escape the British who wanted to arrest him. There were even reports of Bose living in Russia and other foreign countries, even some claims of having seen him as a sadhu, but none were ever proved and today his death in the plane crash is the accepted version.

Overview of the Production Possibility Curve

Overview of the Production Possibility Curve Production Possibility Curve Production possibility curve is the curve that show the combination of two item or services that can be produce in the market in a certain amount of time provided that all other eternal factor that can effect the curve are kept constant such as, labour, technology land and capital. The curve shows the production between two item and how much can we produce with the current resources or technology. As the title says ‘possibility’ which also means that with this much of resources, how much of item can it produce or achieve. There are 3 types of production possibility curve which are straight-line sloping down, concave and convex curve. The first type of curve has a constant negative gradient or constant ratio which also means that as one item/good decreases by one, the other item/good will increase by one, and it will always be constant. Which also means that its opportunity cost will be always constant. But this type of curve is not realistic because it cannot represent the market/economy. The second type of curve is known as concave curve, it has increasing ratio as moving on the curve which also means that we need to decrease more of a item/good to produce more of the good and the decreasing number will keep increase as a sacrifice for another item/good. Which also means that the opportunity cost will keep increasing. Thus this graph is also knows as increasing opportunity curve. This type of curve is more realistic and it represent the whole market or economy. The last type of curve is known as convex curve, it has decreasing ratio as moving on the curve which is also means that we need to decrease less of a item/good to produce more of a good and the decreasing number will keep decrease as moving along the curve. Which is also means that the opportunity cost will keep decreasing. Thus the graph is also known as decreasing opportunity curve. This type of curve does not really exist in the real life economy, some says that in agriculture, this type of curve does exist but mostly it is not. Assumptions of the Production Possibility Curve There are assumption on the production possibility curve because the curve is not a live feed as the market always changes and it also could not show every possible detail of the market so we will have to keep it short and simple while still able to represent the market. There are four assumption of the production possibility curve which are assumption of two goods/items, constant resources, constant technology and efficiency. The first assumption is that the curve assumed that the market/economy only have two goods/items or that the goods/items will represent the whole market/economy. This way we could define or assume the economy from the curve, because the two goods/items simplify the economy thus we only could interpret the economy because in reality there are too many goods/items to take into account or it is impossible to take everything into one curve. In conclusion this assumption of the two goods simplify the market/economy so that we could monitor the changes and the stands of the market/economy. The next or second assumption is that the resources that is supply to the economy is constant or fixed. Resources will always change but we cannot use the real amount of resources to construct the production possibility curve, we will need to resources to be constant to construct the production possibility curve. Due to it constant resources at a time, we could use it to compare with another amount of resources at another time, with this we could analyse the increase in resources or decrease in resources. The third assumption is quite similar to the second one as it assumed the technology is constant. This is an assumption of how well or how much the tools and machineries will produce goods/items given the same amount of resources. It can be seen when a tool or machine produces 10 cake with 10 kg of flour while another tool with a higher or more advanced technology produces 10 cake with 5kg of flour or produces 20 cake with 10 kg of flour. This technological advancement will cause the production possibility curve to change and technology advances everyday thus we need to make it constant. Similar to the assumption of the constant resources, we can use it as comparison as shown is the example, we can use the amount of goods/items produce to compare because is the technology advances, more goods/items will be produce and the other way when the technology degrades. The last assumption is the efficiency, the production possibility curve assume that all the resources are utilize fully but in reality the resources are never been utilize fully. This can be seen where the some labour have no motivation or heart to work and work at its fullest. This is the hardest factor to control so the possibility of the labour force will be fully utilize is very less. There are times when the machineries are old and did not sent for maintenance which will cause the efficiency of the production to drop which will be another factor to contribute to efficiency cannot be fully achieved. Thus it assumed that the work force is fully utilize and no waste of resources to produce the production possibility curve. Opportunity Cost Production Possibility Curve A Opportunity cost is the cost or expenses needed to be given or sacrifice to gain something, like the production possibility curve A above, we can produce either guns or butter but to increase the production of one type of goods/item we need to decrease the other, for example now we are producing at point A and we want to produce more of butter so we decided to shift our production to B, when our production for butter increases, at the same time we need to decrease the guns production in exchange because of scarcity. There are 3 type of opportunity cost which are increasing opportunity cost, constant opportunity cost and decreasing opportunity cost. Production possibility curve A shows increasing opportunity cost which can be seen at between point AB and Point CD, to increase the production of butter by 10, the quantity of guns needed to be reduced by 5 but as going down the curve like point C and D, to increase the production of butter by 10, the production of 50 guns need to be reduced. From that we can say it is increasing opportunity cost because the opportunity cost increase as going down the curve from 5 to 50 to produce the same amount of butter. Unemployment Unemployment in terms of business refers to a situation whereby a graduate or a working age adult fails to get a job. There are many types of unemployment, which includes classical, cyclical, structural, frictional, hidden and long-term. This problem would bring about negative impact in the long run to the country’s economic growth. In terms of economics, unemployment is defined as the wastage of resources in a production. When this occurs the economy would not be able to reach the production possibility curve which is a result of any point that appears INSIDE the curve. This can be further illustrated by the production possibility curve whereby the point which shows unemployment is at Point D which is located INSIDE the curve. At this point the resources are not fully used in the production of goods but would still attainable. Point A, B and C on the other hand achieve full employment in the production of capital goods and consumer goods.In addition to this, point E is an example of the production that is unattainable based on the current advancement of technology and resources. There are many ways to improve the production possibility curve in order for all the resources to be fully utilized. The government would provide insurance, compensation, and subsidies to aid in restraining of the demand. Besides, the labor market is never 100% efficient, therefore, the minimum wage policy should be reconsidered and the power of unions should be reduced at the same time. This would then improve the economic in the long run. Economic Growth Economic growth can be easily defined as the output shift of the production possibility curve due to the rise of the economy over a certain period or an increase in the production due the fully utilization of scare resources. This shift on then production possibility curve shows that the economy has successfully increased its capacity to produce more. The few factors that contribute to the economic growth is the advancement in technology, the increase in man power, the discovery of new production methods as well as raw materials. When there is an advance in technology, the production of goods or services would be more efficient. For example in countries like China, the rapid economic growth is due to application of new technology to then manufacturing process. An economy would not be able to grow if there is an insufficient amount of resources allocated especially to the capital goods. Next, the increase of labor force is important to enable a more number of people to contribute physically in the production. A particular country allows specialization between the laborers to enable better quality and a well divided task to improve the productive capacity and to ensure to outward shift on the production possibility curve in the time to come. Over the years new production methods as well as raw materials are discovered to improve the economic growth of the country. For example the first usage of technology such as computers or other electronic gadgets to control the production methods such as robots has greatly improve the productivity of the economy and many other firms contributing to this economic growth. Alternative types of raw materials were introduced to ensure the continuous supply for the production of the good. Diffence Between Constant Opportunity Cost and Increasing Opportunity Cost Constant opportunity cost occurs when the production possibility curve is linear. The relationship between opportunity cost and quantity supplied is the same. Assuming that a factory wishes to increase their production of good T from 250 units to 500 units, the factory has to sacrifice 250 units of good R in order to increase the production of good T. Thus, the ratio between opportunity cost and quantity supplied is constant, 1:1. The production possibility curve of increasing opportunity cost is concave from its origin. Increasing opportunity cost means the more units of good T produced, the more the opportunity cost of good R. Assuming that the factory has to forgoes 20 units of good R so that the factory is able to produce 50 more units of good T. If the factory wishes to increase the production of good T from 100 units to 150 units, they have to let go 60 units of good R. In this case, it clearly shows us an increasing opportunity cost. Reference 2000. Assumption of Production Possibility Curve. 3 February 2015. Available from : http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=wpdc=dspk=assumptions,+production+possibilities 2014. Unemployment. Viewed on 7 February 2015. Available from : https://www.boundless.com/economics/textbooks/boundless-economics-textbook/unemployment-22/definitions-102/defining-unemployment-388-12485/ 2000. Unemployment. Viewed on 7 February 2015. Available from : http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=wpdc=dspk=unemployment,+production+possibilities 2015. Economic Growth. Viewed on 7 February 2015. Available from : http://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Competitive_markets/Economic_growth.html

Phenomenological Perspective And Theoretical Framework Sociology Essay

Phenomenological Perspective And Theoretical Framework Sociology Essay The aim in this chapter is to offer the foundations on which I base my methodological approach and data analysis. In this section I will clarify theoretical issues which I have examined and informed my work. I outline a framework that highlights the interconnectedness of the macro and micro in explicating the actions and policies of local government in implementing the renewed race relations approach. In this regard, the chapter covers a range of important issues and introduces a number of theoretical concepts relating to race relations and equality. For work of this sort to have meaning it has to embody a rigorous conceptual analysis which underpin a critical theory approach. These definitions are located in a broader theory of oppression and intrinsic discrimination and inequality. Below are the concepts which have informed my approach, these concepts will allow me to examine and understand the complex situation. Phenomenological perspective To state that research doesnt happen in vacuum / isolation acknowledgement of historical and social influences will shape the research Objectivity/subjectivity Positionality Structuration theory Through social action that structures and agency are shaped. Rejects Parsons functionalism subjectivity And also hermeneutics approach on agency He argues his theory of structuration reveals how the micro (personal) is shaped by the macro (social systems) Read Positioning chapter in 1984 book. Social practices ordered across space and time refer to the actions of individuals and groups understood in their social, cultural and historical context. A key element of this theory, therefore, is the attempt to understand reality in terms of structure the significance of social divisions and other aspects of social organisation and agency the exercise of choice. While many forms of social theory address either structure or agency, structuration theory is characterised by a focus on structure and agency and the ways in which they are intertwined. In understanding the ability to participate in community matters what is needed then is an appreciation of both structure and agency. It is not a matter of either or, nor is it an underemphasising of the role of agency by concentrating on the social structures to the almost total exclusion of issues of choices, intentions, wishes, fears and aspirations, or an overemphasising of the role of agency, failing to recognise the power role of social structure in shaping, enabling and constraining the actions of individuals and groups. Our agency is rooted in the complexities of social systems but is not determined by them. Racism, discrimination and oppression are also imbedded in those social systems. Power Power is a central feature of the struggle to promote social justice and equality. It is envisaged power in this study will be played out in many ways. In a practical sense, it is the local government who holds the power both with policy and resources (staff, time, organisation, money), in this case the dominant party, to eliminate the inequalities faced by minority groups. Power analysis is useful in identifying resistance to change as this does not rely solely on the While in the workings of organisations power is transparent in the formal decision-making process, work by Hunter study of decision makers and places of net-working , Mills study of power elite, Bachrach and Baratzs power is,exercised by containing the scope of decision-making to relatively safe issues (p. 6). Steven Lukes (1974) three dimensional framework of power identify other ways in which power may operate. In this study I am informed by Lukess three dimensional framework of power as it illuminates the different dimensions where power operates. Lukes theory is built on earlier theories on power which he addresses in his book Radical View. Dahls one dimensional model of power is conceived of as intentional and active in the political arena by political actor groups, and power consists in defeating the opponents preferences. The focus is on decision-making behavior on issues where there is an observable conflict of subjective interests as revealed by policy preferences. Criticism of this view, is that power is not only reflected in concrete decisions. Individuals can limit decision-making to non-controversial issues by keeping certain topics off the agenda and argued that power should be analysed by two-dimensional model of power. According to Lukes, the two-dimensional view of power is limited in that it focuses only on observable conflicts, whether overt or covert. Lukes claims power can also by influencing, shaping, or determining his wants and preferences. Another second criticism is that this view is too committed to behaviorism, that is to the study of concrete decisions, whereas inaction can also be the outcome of socially structured and culturally patterned collective behavior. The third point on which this view is seen as inadequate is in its claim that non-decision-making power only exists where there are grievances which are denied entry into the political process in the form of issues. However, Lukes argues that power can be also exercised by preventing grievances by shaping perceptions and preferences in such a way as to secure the acceptance of the status quo since no alternative appears to exist, or because it is seen as natural and unchangeable. This he refers to as the insidious/invisible third dimension of power, through which the relatively powerless came to internalise and accept their own condition, and thus might not be awa re of nor act upon their interests in any observable way. Lukes third face of power was inspired by Gramscis ideas about hegemony and manufacture of consent as the means by which the willing compliance of workers is secured in capitalist societies. In practical terms, Gramscis insights about how power is constituted in the realm of ideas and knowledge expressed through consent rather than force. Lukes contrasts two meanings of hegemony: the first as an unconscious psychological process that is cultural and internalised, and the second a more conscious, wilful and coordinated strategy of domination. Hinson and Healey (2003, 4) further write that [Invisible power] is exercised in part through control of the institutions that shape and create meaning: religious institutions, the media, mass consumer culture, popular ideas about government, etc. Although the concept of power is used, it is itself is highly contested. What accounts for the highly contested nature of the concept of power? One explanation is that how we conceptualize power is shaped by the political and theoretical interests that we bring to the study of power  Lukes 2005, p63.   Some theorists define power as getting someone else to do what you want them to do (power-over) whereas others define it more broadly as an ability or a capacity to act (power-to). Many very important analyses of power in political science, sociology, and philosophy presuppose the former definition of power (power-over). As Steven Lukes notes, Dahls one-dimensional view of power, Bachrach and Baratzs two-dimensional view, and his own three-dimensional view are all variations of the same underlying conception of power, according to which A exercises power over B when A affects B in a manner contrary to Bs interests (1974, 30). Similarly, but from a very different theoretical background, Michel Foucaults highly influential analysis presupposes that power is a kind of power-over; and he puts it, if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only insofar as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others (1983, 217). Feminists refer to this kind of relation as a specific kind of power-over relation, namely, one that is unjust and oppressive, they also refer to this kind of relation as oppression, patriarchy, subjection, and domination to those over whom power is exercised, this oppressive power will be discussed below. For the above section should I include Huner and Mills ways in which way power is used to manage people , manipulation and coercion see separate document how power works Global effects local While this is local community study, I am drawing upon the study of international developmental work by Gaventa and colleagues. Firstly, they contend that effects of globalisation have changed the spatial relations of power, therefore, power increasingly should be understood not only at the local, national or the global level, but also in their inter-relationships p4 (ESRC undated). The ripple effects of 9/11 in the US and the increase in Islamophobia, the renewed race relations can be seen in this context. Places where power is held Although in the past it was the local government who controlled and made the decisions in the city and neighbourhoods, governance is now characterised by multiple intersecting actors, arenas and networks. The decision making arenas in which power may be found have become increasingly more varied and porous. Especially with the increase in arms-length-companies, social enterprises (joint private and public projects). Therefore attention to the decision-making in such spaces require equal focus in the study of power and decision makers. Who says they have become more porous? Gaventa There are different approaches to understanding and analysing power, I will use the powercube approach offered by by Gaventa and team which is based on Lukes three faces dimensions of power three faces. The power cube is an analytical device, which can be used along with other approaches to reflect on and analyse how strategies for change in turn change power relations: The approach, developed over the years is largely based on studies of community groups based in southern hemisphere. The theoretical approach grew originally as a way of exploring how powerful actors control the agenda through and the ability of less powerful actors to build their awareness and action for change.   The powercube is a framework for analysing the  levels,  spaces  and  forms  of power, and their  interrelationship.   It is useful in exploring various aspects of power and how they interact with each other.   The  levels  dimension of the powercube refers to the differing layers of decision-making and authority held on a vertical scale, including the  local,national  and  global. The  spaces  dimension of the powercube refers to the potential arenas for participation and action, including what we call  closed,  invited  and  claimedspaces. The  forms  dimension refers to the ways in which power manifests itself, including its  visible,  hidden  and  invisible  forms. The powercube can build on and be used to further explore the  expression of power:   power over, power to, power with, and power within. In the study, where the dominant group have to bring about change for minority groups, expressions of power such as power-over by actors who are instructed to make changes. The power lens will also help to identify partnerships which help to generate power-with across wider range of actors/ groups. The empirical work should highlight power-within as minority communities self-determine within the community to work towards improving their lives. In this respect, the power lens will illuminate sources of claimed space by the mobilisation of networks and supporters within the neighbourhood. John Gaventa takes invisible power further. In the powercube, invisible power need not be limited to intentional acts of thought control by the powerful, but can also be seen as self-reproducing social processes in which the thinking and behaviour of the powerful and powerless alike are conditioned by pervasive norms. Invisible power in the powercube can therefore embrace both meanings of hegemony its structure and agency and points to the need for appropriate strategies for engaging with both forms of invisible or internalised power. This third face of power is likewise treated by VeneKlasen and Miller (2002) as a multidimensional barrier to effective citizen participation, requiring well-designed tactics for building self-awareness, self-esteem and power within to challenge dominant norms such as gender and racial discrimination. Their practical methods are grounded in experiences of womens organising and empowerment, and recognises the direct links between gendered norms in society and the fragile condition of womens power within. Invisible power in this sense bridges agency and structure. The use of power analysis is effective in uncovering/ identifying resistence and compliance to changes rather than relying solely on the formal decision-making process. Critical race theory Relationship to other movements Critical race theory builds on the insights of movements such as anti-racism and radical feminism to which it owes a large debt. CRT also draws from certain European philosophers and theorists such as Steven Lukes, Antonia Gramsci, as well as from the American radical tradition exemplified by such figures as Sojourner Truth, W.E.B. Du Bois. race equality policies are developed by white people/the oppressors themselves. CRT also shares a sympathetic understanding of group empowerment. Racism/Discrimination The term race is problematic The term race itself is problematic, a clear understanding of the term race is paramount in understanding what is racism and what impact this has on institutions and people. While the term race is used, Miles and Phizacklea (1982), have suggested that race should be dispensed with as an analytic category because the very use of the term reproduces and gives legitimacy to a distinction, existence of different human races, that has no scientific status or validity. Thus, an analytic category helps to perpetuate and legitimises the notion that race is a meaningful term (Miles and Phizacklea 1984). Although this may be the case at one level, to deny the significance of race this also obscures the ways in which it has real effects both in material and representational terms (look up this quote and amend) (Anthias 1990). While it is clear that races do not exist, in any objective scientific reality, it is clear that it does exist as a category /group which is reflected in political and popular discourse (Solomos). Race is a way of constructing differences (Anthias and Yuval-Davis, 1993, Cashmore and Troyna 1983, Gilroy, 1987). Race is a social category used in reference to divisions within a particular society. Cashmore and Troyna, suggest that race should be seen as a stigmatized identity forced on other people. Similarly, Modood (1988) proposes that race relates to mode of oppression, how a group is categorised and subordinated. Race theorists such as Bonnet 1993, Gilroy 1987, Brah 1996 and others understand the notion of races as a social construct. As Bhavani argues the development of race as a spurious scientific category is a consequence of imperialism and colonization. It is this scientificism which informed, (and still informs), prevailing ideologies of biological superiority and inferiority among human beings on the basis of race. Jackson and Penrose (1993) argue that race is so rooted in the way we think about the world that we tend to take the category for granted. It is through the apparent naturalness and immutability that racist ideology works. Although the terms race and racism are themselves contradictory, the terms are useful as a way of categorizing the systematic mistreatment experienced by people from black and minority ethnic communities and is used in this study. Donald and Rattansi (1992) suggest that instead of starting with the question as to whether race exists, it is more useful to ask how the category operates and how racial frames of reference are articulated and deployed, and with what consequences (p1). Race and ethnicity used interchangeably The terms race and ethnicity are often used interchangeably, the terms are generally distinguished in that race evokes a biological and genetic referent while ethnicity refers to cultural and religious difference and kinship (Gunaratnam).  The term ethnicity has been preferred in some quarters; however, ethnicity is also linked to liberal notions of multi-ethnic societies and multi-culturalism which have a tendency to obscure the force of racism with their celebrations of benign pluralism. Race theorists argue the markers and signifiers that racism uses need not be those of biology and physiognomy but can be those of language, territorial rights or culture (Anthias p24). P.262 Rolston ethnicity slowly became term used to discuss the internal conflict in Northern Ireland not its history, inequalities, structural policies or action. p.257 Rolston use of postmodernist language in policies, work etc. there is not any mention of historical legacies such as Thus the unequal relationship s, where the Irish and blacks were the oppressed by the British suppressers is ignored, in a way attempts are made to blank out the history . Racism works through oppression, and the form of oppression can be through discrimination, bias, prejudice and bigotry Bluemenfeld. Anti-racist theorists have drawn upon theories of oppression to examine how racism works, two key themes are prevalent. Firstly, there is the awareness is a system of oppression that not only stigmatises and affects the dominated group but also does psychic and ethical violence to the dominator group as well. The second theme is that racism functions not only through overt, conscious prejudice and discrimination but also through unconscious attitudes and behaviours of a society that presumes an unacknowledged but pervasive white cultural supremacy. The concept of unmarked and unacknowledged norms bolsters the power position of the dominant group. For instance, by group identities, the dominant group have positive value, while labelling the dominated groups as minorities. While in the UK, racism is popularly understood to be white people having power over black people, Rolston points to anti-Irish racism, which exists in the UK. Rolston argues there are similarities between black oppression and Irish national oppression. In both cases, the root cause of conflict and inequalities is not addressed but hidden behind a veil of multiculturalism which is articulate through the use of postmodernist language. Ethnicity, diversity, integration, tolerance, difference,cultural awareness is considered to be all that is needed. The study of racism has shown that it operates through systems of oppression. This often involves a dominant group who knowingly or unknowingly exploit and reap unfair advantage over members of subordinate or target groups (Johnson 2004). The dominant group also has economic, political or social, power over the subordinate group. (Essed and Goldberg 2002)suggests that racism is created through routine practices by people. They describe racism as both structure and process. It is structure because dominance and discrimination exists and is reproduced through the formulation and application of rules, laws, and regulations and through access to and the allocation of resources. As a process, it exists in the everyday practice where it is reproduced and reinforced, adapting continually to the ever-changing social, political and economic societal conditions. It becomes normal to the dominant group to see others as different and inferior particularly in relation to the colour of their skin (Bhavnani 2005). Everyday racism refers to forms of discrimination that manifest themselves in systematic, recurrent, familiar practices. Everyday racism is infused into familiar practices, it involves socialized attitudes and behaviour (Johnson 2004). Racism also serves to deny full participation in economic, social, political and cultural life by the essence that they posit (Anthias and Yuval-Davis 1992; (Gunaratnam 2003). However, there is not a unitary system of signification that can be labelled racist nor is there a unitary perpetrator or victim. This position requires addressing the ways in which the categories of difference and exclusion or the bias of class, gender and ethnicity incorporate processes of racialisation and are intertwined in producing racist discourses and outcomes Anthias (1992 (p3). Include different levels that racism can operate from SCIP (Pincus). There more ethnicity and culture matters the more its characteristics are represented as relatively fixed, inherent within a group, transmitted from generation to generation, not just by culture and education, but by biological inheritance (Gunaratnam 2003). Cultural difference has largely displaced the notion of biological difference, as a basis for excluding or inferiorising, both in discourse and practice (Anthias and Yuval-Davis 1992) and recently faith has been used as categorising difference (Cantle 2007). Anthias and Yuval-Davis (1992) argue that exclusionary practices that are formulated on the categorization of individuals into groups whereby ethnic or racial origin are the criteria of access or selection then they are endemically racist. They content that racism is not just about beliefs or statements, but about the ability to impose those beliefs or world-views as hegemonic, and as a basis for denial of rights or equality. Racism is thus embedded in power relations of diff erent types. Whilst it is known that racism is not only carried out by white people but also by black people, it should not be confused with the occasional mistreatment experienced by whites, with the systematic and institutionalized mistreatment experienced by people of colour (Anthias and Yuval-Davis 1992). The studies of oppressive behaviour, attitudes and structures have been studied by other oppressed categories such as feminists. Iris Young has oppression names a family of concepts and conditions, which can be divide into 5 categories: exploitation, marginalisation, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence (Young). Marxist explanations of racism is that class divide. In using the concept of race there is the danger of essentialising difference. There are difficulties and contradictions involved in working with the concept, as other concepts such as gender, class, sexuality, ableism also impact on how people live. Hall further argues that the interactive nature of racial or gender categories should be recognised as a complex process and a set of factors through which identity is formulated and contested. Constructions of race as of class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity interact, fuse with or displace each other in an on-going process of confrontation and negotiation (Hall, 1992). Culture Institutional racism While institutional discrimination had been recognised by anti-racist to exist, it was as significant marker in racism in that institutional racism was publicly exposed and put on the political agenda in the Macpherson Inquiry published in 1999. (Back et al 2002). For the purposes of the Inquiry the concept of institutional racism which was applied was The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people 6.34 Oppression can also be structural. Its causes are embedded in unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols in the assumptions underlying institutional rules and the collective consequences of following those rules. Some groups suffer as a consequence of often unconscious assumptions and reactions of well-meaning people in ordinary interactions, media and cultural stereotypes and structural features of bureaucratic hierarchies and market mechanisms in short, the normal processes of everyday life Young. Need to bring social structures and institutional contexts under evaluation as these are at least partly the cause of patterns of distribution of jobs or wealth. Young has noted three primary categories- decision-making structures and procedures, division of labour and culture (p22). Young argued that Justice should refer not only to distribution, but also to the institutional conditions necessary for the development and exercise of individual capacities and collective communication and cooperation (p37 Power to omit The decision makers have the power to keep and control the topic on the agenda for discussion. Thus by not addressing issues which are pertinent to minority groups the decision makers collaborate in the discrimination. Impact of racism on BME and WHITE communities The impact of racism in British society can be seen in the racialised and gendered forms of class exploitation either as homeworkers or in low-waged occupations on employers premises (Amrit Wilson). Race significantly affects black womens experiences of treatment in areas such as education, the health service and the labour market (Brah 1991). The influence how black people are represented in popular culture and the mass media (Modleski 1986) Points to include in definition of racism From the discussion above, the following points have been identified as appropriate to include in the working definition of the term racism which will be used in this study. Although the terms race and racism are themselves contradictory, the terms are useful as a way of categorizing the systematic mistreatment experienced by people from black and minority ethnic communities (BME). The systematic mistreatment experienced by people from BME communities is a result of institutionalized inequalities in the social structure. In denying people from BME communities, full participation in economic, political and social power, a self-perpetuating imbalance occurs. This imbalance consistently favours members of some ethnic and cultural groups at the expense of others. The consequences of this imbalance pervade all aspects of the social system and affect all facets of peoples lives. The systematic mistreatment of any group of people generates misinformation about them, which in turn becomes the explanation of or justification for continued mistreatment. Racism exists as a whole series of attitudes, assumptions, feelings and beliefs about people of colour and their cultures which are a mixture of misinformation, fear and ignorance. Participation and citizenship Participation of general population Big Society Although the concept of participation or community participation as it is often known, has been around since 1970s?, in the UK it has re-emerged with renewed vigour in the last decade. Participation and engagement are terms used intermittently today. While there are differences in the meaning of these terms there is also a lot of overlap. These terms are associated with the importance of involving wider groups of people in decisions, services and design, it is often thought services should be client-led, user-led for the service to be more effective. Concerns about a democratic deficit in the accountability of public services, and an increasing view that lay citizens, members of the public and service users have an important contribution to offer to the improvement of public-service provision, have given rise to a variety of new initiatives in local government, health and social care, and other fields (see, e.g., Barnes, Newman and Sullivan, 2007). Race perspective Participation from citizens rights to citizens responsibilities Participation allows people to be part of the democratic process, sense of belonging, and part of the decision making. However, the process of racial discrimination excludes black people from fully participating in society and being equal members in all the structures of the society. It is often the case, black peoples role is limited to being the clients service-users. Black people are excluded from participating to a greater extent. The multiculturalism policies did not address the deep rooted racism epidemic within the UK. It was merely about steel drums and samosas. As discussed earlier, racism excludes black people from fully participating in societies.

The Dutch Attack on Landguard Fort Essay -- Papers

The Dutch Attack on Landguard Fort Q 1. Source A tells us that the Dutch attacked with about one-thousand men, in five-hundred small vessels and landed near Felixstowe cliff. Many of these soldiers had pikes. Silas Taylor, the author of the source, says that "some part" of the Dutch army attacked the fort, which is an early indication of the rear guard left behind. This also points to a possible reason for the failure of the attack, in that the Dutch did not attack with the full force of their army. He says that one English soldier was killed, two were wounded and that the Dutch made two attacks. He says the Dutch attacked boldly, but were as boldly and resolutely answered. However, he could be saying that the Dutch attacked boldly to make the English defence sound even better. We are told that the Dutch were put to "fright and flight" by the small guns from a galliot. The small guns from this ship were fired into the area were the Dutch were taking cover, and pebbles were thrown up which made them retreat. This source gives the overall impression that the Dutch made a strong attack, but were "boldly" answered by the English. The reliability of this source, however, is questionable, as it was written by an English man, who is bound to be biased towards his own country. Also, he was watching form Harwich, which is roughly two miles from Felixstowe. Q2. Source F does not support source B. Source B says that the Dutch ships were "so close to Landguard Fort that we expect fire to be given at any moment". Source F says that the ships were so far away from the fort that their shots would "scarcely reach (the fort)." The Dutch ... ...re casualties. This also could have been linked to De Ruyter's reluctance to commit large forces to attack. It is likely he did not want to risk any unnecessary victims, especially when he was aware of the task facing him. Also, while this attack was happening, peace negotiations were being held in Breda. After the Dutch victory in the Medway, they had the upper hand in negotiating a deal. De Ruyter would have wanted to avoid a disaster at Landguard that could have changed the balance of power in the negotiations. This victory was not essential, but keeping his fleet together and in control of the English Channel was. Overall, I think that the Dutch attack was not committed enough, but this was planned by De Ruyter, He knew the strength of the English fort, and did not want to risk any unnecessary casualties.

The Mirrors :: English Literature Essays

The Mirrors It was a small, circular mirror. When Jake picked it up, he saw his crystal clear reflection, enhanced by the smooth, silver glass. He looked up out of the old boxes he was rummaging through to find the rest of his dimly lit garage. He could hear kids playing outside and he rubbed his hands together, trying to remedy the sting of the bitter, unrelenting cold. He picked up the mirror, and took it into his mansion of a house in a quiet, peaceful suburb. It was a Midwestern winter, and the days were short, bringing cold nights laced with the sounds of speeding cars flying down the highway. Jake heard the shrill call from his mother. "Jake, we're going to McDonald's. What do you want us to bring you back?" Jake thought about it a moment, and responded in his low, thick voice. "Im not hungry right now. Go ahead." "You really should eat!" she yelled back. He didn't respond. Instead, he went into his room, mirror in hand. Jake had long been obsessed with the paranormal, diving into books of ghosts, demons, angels, and reproductions of ancient cabalic documents. It was in these books that he learned of scrying, which is foretelling the future through the use of mirror glass. He remembered about the cool antique mirror graced with Celtic knotwork and a red runestone, and figured he would give the ancient art a shot. He opened up the book, looked at some procedures, and followed the instructions. He set out the fancy purple velour cloth on his desk and placed the circular mirror down upon it. He then eagerly looked into the book and slowly chanted the specified jargon in slow, broken Latin. With that, he blew out his candles, waiting as the book said, for the mirror's powers to unlock. Nothing happened. He got up from the chair in expectation that it wouldn't work, and proceeded to turn the lights on, when he was shocked by what he heard. It started off as a whisper barely audible, and as he listened in sheer terror it became louder and louder, till he could hear nothing else but the shrieking terror that plagued his ears. It reminded him of a dog growling as if it were intimidated, but this was much more low, and contained what could only be described as pure, clean, unadulterated evil.

The Issue of Keeping Animals in Captivity

The issue of keeping animals in captivity has been brought into focus recently. Some people claimed animals have the right to choose to live in their natural habitats, but others think some animals do better in the zoos. Overall, it is important to look as both sides of the argument. Supporters of zoos would argue that there are many advantages to keeping animals in captivity. One of the most important of these is that there are some endangered species are protected in the zoos. Like Giant Panda, Brown Bear and Siberian Tiger and so on. Moreover, zoos give us a close encounter with wild animals. In addition to this, zoos make an easy life for animals. For example, they don't need to run about hunting for a meal, there are no real predators in the zoos and they don’t have to worry about finding partner. On the other hand, those who oppose zoos would argue that some large animals need plenty of space to wander around in. Such as lions and polar bears, they are also endangered species but they usually breed unsuccessfully in the zoos which because of stress. Furthermore, people visit zoos for entertainment not for education. Besides, animals lose natural instincts in the zoos. If we put them to the wildlife again, they can’t survive well independently. That is a kind of tragedy is made by human. On balance, I feel that zoos are not suitable for all animals, it’s really depends on what species they are, what behaviour they have and where is better for them to live. However, the zoos need to do more researches for understand animals better and improve the living environment of them constantly.

Childhood Is the Best Time of Ones Life Essay

Childhood is certainly the best time in one’s life. Do you agree? Have you ever thought about the happiest part of your life? Many people will probably agree that childhood is the best time of one’s life. But not every childhood is happy. Some children may be born in a poor family or under such circumstances that make their lives bad. In my opinion, childhood is the happiest time of a person’s life in most cases. The first reason is when we were kids, we had no responsibility or problem to think about. We had more time to play with toys and friends, we were treated like kings and queens by our parents, and we did not have the complicated and heavy issues. The biggest problem when we were small was what color of crayon to choose for drawing. Childhood is a period which is associated with fun and play. Children tend to enjoy life without thinking about the consequences. Kids are considered as the most innocent human beings. This is because they are not prone to see the world as the adults do. Secondly, childhood is the best time for us to gain knowledge and understand life. When we were young, of course we were eager to try many things. We tried to ride a bicycle, we tried to catch a grasshopper, and we even played with mud and sand! With this adventure, we start to build interests and it gives us the experience that we cannot replace with anything. However, when A person is born in a patological family, can’t go to school, can’t learn how to read and write, can’t experience new things or can’t play with other kids. Or a child has parents who abuse him or her. Such childhood is a nightmare of one’s life. Fortunatly, cases like this are not frequent and vast majority of children have a happy childhood. To sum up, I do strongly agree that ‘Childhood is the happiest time of a person’s life’. our expectations for life and other people around us are very simple and would not cause any trouble. The childhood time is the best time in life, the experiences we have been through are irreplaceable and we will cherish in our mind.